Habitual violent media exposure does not bias facial emotional processing: a comparison of interactive vs. non-interactive content

Abstract

The relationship between violent media exposure and aggression remains widely debated. The General Aggression Model (GAM) suggests that repeated exposure fosters aggression through the formation of aggressive scripts and emotional desensitization. However, empirical findings have been mixed, and a growing body of research has criticized the GAM for overstating the strength and consistency of this association. In light of this, the present study investigated whether habitual exposure to violent media biases emotional information processing and whether such effects differ by mode of media interactivity. A total of 54 violent media users participated, comprising violent video gamers (VVGs

M<inf>age</inf> = 20.07 years, SD = 1.26) and non-video gamers (NVGs

M<inf>age</inf> = 21.29 years, SD = 1.10). Results showed a robust happy-face advantage and lower recognition capacity for negative emotions across both groups. These findings challenge the script theory and desensitization assumptions. Interestingly, when trait aggression was included as a covariate in the ANCOVA, the emotional effects were consistently attenuated or rendered nonsignificant. This pattern suggests that media effects are shaped by personal predispositions rather than acting in isolation. While the findings challenge the claim that violent media increases aggression, caution is needed when generalizing to individuals with higher levels of dispositional aggression. © The Author(s) 2025.