Optimizing TiO2 Nanorods Synthesis for High-Performance Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells: An Experimental Study on Time-Dependent Growth and Characterization

Abstract

Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) are well known as the current emerging and promising photovoltaic devices due to their cost-effectiveness and high performance under diffused light conditions. The efficiency of DSSCs is primarily characterized by the structural and electronic features of the photoanode. This study focuses on optimizing the hydrothermal synthesis of TiO<inf>2</inf> nanorods (NRs) on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) substrate by varying the reaction time from 4 to 9 h. The 8 h synthesis duration produced highly aligned TiO<inf>2</inf> NRs exhibiting superior crystallinity, reduced defect density, and optimal bandgap (∼2.98 eV). The corresponding DSSCs achieved an efficiency of 0.97%, outperforming shorter or longer synthesis times due to enhanced charge transport and minimized recombination. These results demonstrate that precise control of hydrothermal time is key for fabricating efficient, natural dye-based DSSCs. © 2026 Wiley-VCH GmbH.