Comprehensive review on hydrophobic carbon dots and their multifunctional applications

Abstract

Hydrophobic carbon dots have been considered a novel class of functional nanomaterials that integrate surface hydrophobicity with remarkable optical tunability and chemical stability. These nanostructures exhibit excellent physicochemical, photophysical and biocompatible properties, making them promising candidates for optical electronics, anticounterfeiting dual encryption, latent fingerprint detection, bioimaging, sensing, oil–water separation applications, etc. This review critically consolidates various preparation methods and fundamentals of hydrophobicity, and provides brief insight into the fluorescence mechanisms of hydrophobic carbon dots. Overall, this review provides a comprehensive overview of the current status of hydrophobic carbon dots, highlighting the challenges and future opportunities for translating their unique hydrophobicity character into practical performance and technologies. This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2026.