GIS-based mapping of bearing capacity and liquefaction hazard for the Srinagar metropolitan region of Kashmir

Abstract

This study evaluates the bearing capacity and liquefaction hazards in the sedimentary deposits of the Srinagar Metropolitan Region (SMR) through two novel indices: the Bearing Capacity Hazard Index (BCHI) and the Liquefaction Hazard Index (LHI). The study area is located in the Kashmir Valley, having sedimentary deposits of alluvial floodplains and Karewa highlands, which exhibit significant geotechnical variability due to their distinct depositional environments. BCHI integrates static bearing capacity (SBC), static settlement (SS), seismic-to-static bearing capacity ratio (SBCR), and seismic settlement potential (SSP), while LHI incorporates liquefaction potential index (LPI), liquefaction settlement (S), and liquefaction severity number (LSN). These parameters have then been combined through the Analytical Hierarchy Approach integrated with a GIS platform to develop hazard maps for the region. BCHI has been used to divide the region into zones of bearing capacity hazard: low (< 0.2), medium-high (0.2–0.5), and very high (> 0.5). LHI values have been used to delineate the region based on liquefaction vulnerability: low (< 0.2), medium-high (0.2–0.5), and very high (> 0.5). Results indicate significant spatial variations in geotechnical and liquefaction hazard over the region. The alluvial plains fall in the medium-high hazard zones of liquefaction as well as bearing capacity, whereas the Karewa highlands fall in the low hazard zone of liquefaction and medium hazard zone of bearing capacity. Thereby, the study underscores the severe geotechnical risks in alluvial floodplains, while highlighting Karewa highlands as more suitable for urban expansion. The proposed hazard maps can be used for developing essential guidance for foundation design, land-use planning, and disaster risk mitigation, contributing to safer infrastructure development in the Srinagar Metropolitan Region. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2026.